Since 2015, the Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa (EAMENA) project has been using Earth observation to document archaeological sites across the MENA region and the threats posed to them in an online database. Multispectral data such as Sentinel allows changes to sites to be monitored and higher-resolution imagery is used for digitising archaeology. The project is based at the Universities of Leicester (directed by Professor David Mattingly), Oxford (directed by Professor Andrew Wilson and Dr Bob Bewley) and Durham (Professor Graham Philip) and is funded by Arcadia. A team of post-doctoral researchers carry out recording, monitoring and analyses throughout the MENA region.

In this paper we present a discussion of the trends relating to damage and threats which we have identified and our strategies for risk monitoring and mitigation. While damage to archaeological sites due to conflict (e.g. vandalism, looting) is often high-profile, significant damage is caused by the impacts of modern land use activities. We discuss selected case studies from our region of interest, for example the ancient oases of Al-Jufra in Libya which have been damaged by agricultural expansion.

In the first phase of the project, EAMENA focused on identifying and documenting archaeological sites at risk. Over 200,000 have been documented in detail and this process is ongoing. We use open-source software and data so that the EAMENA database and methodology is as widely available as possible to registered users. Our site recording methodology primarily comprises image interpretation of high resolution satellite imagery including freely-available satellite data (e.g. through Google Earth and Planet) and data from commercial sensors (such as Pleiades, WorldView). For targeted sample areas we are also developing methods which utilise historical satellite and aerial observation systems including 1940s-50s aerial photographs and 1960s declassified cold war satellite imagery. Data about recorded sites such as location, function, condition and risk is searchable in our Arches database and comparable due to our use of standardised terminologies.

The current phase of EAMENA is focused on providing strategies for minimising risk to archaeological sites including regular automated change detection relying on Sentinel data. EAMENA is utilising classification algorithms to monitor the main threats posed by modern land use. We have developed methodologies using Google Earth Engine to map previous and ongoing change widely, mainly using Copernicus Sentinel data. Google Earth Engine is a cloud-based platform freely accessible through the internet, which draws on a vast catalogue of open-source satellite image data, ranging from 1985 to the present (including Landsat and Sentinel imagery) and enables high-performance computing. So far we have developed code which detects changes in agricultural areas in the vicinity of archaeological sites. We are currently working on integrating urban change detection by taking a multi-sensor approach (Sentinel 1 and 2, VIIRS). We are producing a user interface for this tool which can be used by our partners in the MENA region.

Since 2016 we have been delivering training courses funded by the British Council for heritage professionals in the MENA region in the use of databases, GIS and remote sensing for recording archaeological sites and assessing risk to their preservation. This includes skills such as using a GPS to record features, spatial analysis to investigate data, and downloading and processing Sentinel imagery in order to measure changes. In 2019 we will be delivering a programme of advanced courses for selected participants which will be particularly focused on remote sensing skills for damage detection and change monitoring.

This methodology has allowed us to identify the processes which are most impacting on cultural heritage in the MENA region. We have found that the majority of sites which have suffered damage have been affected by mundane anthropogenic activities, especially agricultural and urban expansion. In some locations this has been accelerated by a lack of regulation caused by conflict and its aftermath. Our remote sensing methodology and training courses allow stakeholders to undertake rapid recording of sites and their condition.

Archaeological deposits in the Arctic provide an irreplaceable source of information for understanding past human behaviours and habitation in the region. Furthermore, these deposits are known for unique preservation of organic materials due to cold temperatures and often moist conditions. However, climate change has an enormous impact on the Arctic environment, with irrevocable consequences for archaeological sites in the region. Critical well-known effects include physical destruction due to coastal erosion and increased microbial degradation of organic archaeological deposits as a result of warmer temperatures and a changing hydrology. In addition, climate change has promoted a well-documented ‘greening’ of the Arctic. These vegetation changes are also expected to impact archaeological sites but currently the effects are poorly understood.

It is currently estimated that the Arctic region may contain at least 180,000 archaeological sites. The high number of sites and the logistical challenges of working in the Arctic makes field-based surveys an extremely difficult and costly approach for evaluating the environmental threats on the sites. Instead, the potential of applying methods based on remote sensing should be evaluated.

In this study we investigated five near-shore archaeological sites along a climate gradient in Southwest Greenland in terms of meteorological conditions, coastal morphology, vegetation cover (type and biomass), soil geochemistry and spectral properties. The investigations were based on data from on-site monitoring equipment, site-sampling and optical remote sensing from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and satellites. The study represents a unique approach to comparing environmental threats at archaeological sites at multiple different scales: hyper-local scale ground measurements through plot sampling, local scale through UAVs and regional scale through satellite imagery to reveal spatial and temporal trends

Our results show that numeric models can successfully estimate the microbial degradation of organic archaeological materials based on satellite-derived (MODIS) timeseries of lands surface temperatures. The coastal morphology can be classified using very high-resolution (VHR) satellite data such as Pléiades. The coastal morphology is an important parameter for estimating the threat of coastal erosion. Regarding vegetation, the study shows that Sentinel-2 imagery is a useful tool for monitoring of even small archaeological sites with a size of 50 x 50 m. The spatial resolution of 10 m in the visual and near-infrared bands allows for monitoring the overall vegetation status at the site level using a vegetation index such as NDVI. Furthermore, the revisit time of five days allows for building seasonal timeseries of observations. For mapping the detailed spectral variations within each site, the Sentinel-2 timeseries can be supplemented by VHR satellite data such as Pléiades imagery. Thereby, the results show that satellite imagery provides a reasonable alternative to certain field measurements and could greatly improve knowledge of warming tendencies, site erosion and changing vegetation patterns that may be affecting the preservation conditions at archaeological sites.


Results also show that the investigated archaeological sites are dominated by graminoids with approximately two times more above- and below-ground biomass than the surrounding areas where the vegetation is more heterogeneous. This difference is linked to a significantly higher soil content of plant nutrients (phosphorus, nitrate and ammonium) as a result of past human activities compared to the surrounding soil. This causes the archaeological sites to have distinct spectral properties, which can be used to detect archaeological sites in VHR satellite imagery such as Pléiades. We demonstrate that this methodology has a great potential in the search for undiscovered archaeological sites. In Greenland it is estimated that a large number of undiscovered sites still exist in the many parts of the country. As climate change has marked implications for the preservation of archaeological sites in the Arctic, discovering these sites is extremely important before they are lost.

The Historic Centre of Rome has been added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1980; then the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls was added at the site ten years later. The property includes a series of monuments of incomparable artistic value, produced over almost three millennia of history and encompasses the whole historic center of Rome, included within the urban walls, which can be considered a real symbol of the UNESCO Site. The Mura Aureliane (Aurelian Wall) were built at the end of the third century (271-275 AD). They run over 19 km, with 18 main gates and 383 towers. In addition the Mura Gianicolensi (Janiculum Wall) have been erected by the Popes between 15th and 17th centuries to protect the Vatican and the Trastevere district. The uninterrupted life of the monument, the continuous restoration works, the cuts and demolitions for urban development had weakened the structure during time. Sovrintendenza Capitolina is now mainly focused on counteracting the degradation of the monument, facing damages caused mainly by water (rainfall and damp), air pollution, stress due to traffic vibrations, weeds and biological agents as well as those caused by natural hazards.
The PROTHEGO Project (Protection of European Cultural Heritage from Geohazards) aims at making an innovative contribution towards the analysis of geo-hazards in areas of Cultural Heritage in Europe by applying a novel space technology, based on radar interferometry (PS InSAR, Persistent Scatterer SAR Interferometry), to monitor monuments and sites in Europe affected by geo-hazards. These remotely sensed information on ground stability and motion are combined with geo-hazard datasets to identify the most endangered sites across Europe.
The research activities carried out jointly between Geological Survey and Sovrintendenza Capitolina include the implementation of dedicated GIS platform as a data repository and spatial data elaboration. All ancient city walls, both Aureliane and Gianicolensi, where digitized and georeferenced. All the elements (walls, towers, bastions and gates) were drawn and characterized in order to produce a map of exposed elements. A detailed historical analysis of last twenty years’ ground and structure damages were performed. A specific data sheet of ruptures was created and filled in order to produce a ruptures inventory map. This data sheet contains the following attribute: triggering date, rupture typology, dimensions, triggering mechanisms, presence of restoration works; more than thirty events were collected. The most frequent wall ruptures refers to damage, detachment and cover fall. The obtained damage layer has been compared with detailed urban hazard maps (e.g. seismic, landslide, subsidence) and with the PS (InSAR measured points). The satellite monitoring data and analysis is based on the processing of COSMO-SkyMed image data (time interval since April 2011 to March 2014).
Cross analysis of exposed elements, natural hazard and remote sensed ground displacements highlighted 12 critical areas characterized by ground uplift or lowering at a displacement rate greater than 3 mm/yr, and 14 rupture zones in relative stable areas; thus the latter may be affected by instability structural rather than natural. These results, made possible thanks to a multidisciplinary approach, give an important contribution to define priorities of conservation intervention.

ArTeK (Satellite enabled Services for Preservation and Valorisation of Cultural Heritage) is a project performed in the frame of the Business Applications program of the European Space Agency (ESA) and co-financed by the Italian Space Agency (ASI). The project started in 2016 and ended in December 2018.
ArTeK represents an example of a monitoring service, accessible on the web and providing constantly updated geo-information, aimed at cultural properties safeguard by means of non-destructive techniques such as remote sensing. It was developed by NAIS (Nextant Applications and Innovative Solutions), in collaboration with IsCR (Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione ed il Restauro), ISPRA (Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale) and other public and private Italian companies, that are: CNR-IMAA (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerhe – Istituto di Metodologie per l’Analisi Ambientale), ENAV (Ente Nazionale per l’Assistenza al Volo), SUPERLECTRIC, STRAGO, ipTronix.
ArTeK derived services are addressed to public institutions responsible for cultural properties safeguard.
Italy is a country with a rich and priceless estate of the past represented by the cultural properties distributed homogeneously on the national territory. In particular, Italy has 54 UNESCO cultural/natural properties, equal to the 5% of the worldwide heritage and to the 11% of the European one.
Conservation of Heritage has to face extensive problems due to natural phenomena and anthropic activities, both of them potentially having catastrophic impacts on ancient/historic properties. Among them, there are hydrogeological phenomena (e.g. landslides), soil deformation due to subsidence, properties deteriorations caused by climate change and pollution, urban sprawl, extensive agricultural soil usage, looting and massive touristic flow.
In this complicated scenario ArTeK proposes three services focused on cultural heritage preservation:
(i) the effective, systematic and periodic risk assessment and monitoring of cultural sites at risk based on remote sensing;
(ii) the use of on-site sensors for real-time recording of specific physical parameters, dedicated to properties that need continuous monitoring;
(iii) the monitoring of visitors’ flow in an archaeological site.
The above-mentioned services, by integrating several technologies, offer a plurality of innovative, effective and sustainable solutions to public institutions responsible of cultural heritage safeguard. Technologies used are the following:
(a) Earth Observation from satellite (optical and radar) for:
(i) identification and assessment of environmental risks with a potential negative impact over cultural assets
(ii) identification of changes occurred over the years
(iii) properties/environment conditions assessment
Specifically, during the phase of demonstration activities, satellites used for output generation were those coming from the Copernicus mission, Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2, and data coming from the contributing mission COSMO-SkyMed, plus other commercial missions.
(b) Satellite Telecommunication (SAT-COM) to allow data transmission from on-site sensors network to the ArTeK service centre;
(c) Satellite Navigation, at the base of visitor’s flow monitoring;
(d) Airborne surveys from UAVs systems equipped with a multispectral sensor, used when requested by the situation (e.g. when spatial resolution offered by satellite sensors was not sufficient or when monuments’ portions/elements were not directly visible by visual inspection);
(e) On-site sensors positioned inside test sites.
Data derived by the above listed instruments (satellite, UAV system, on-site sensors) were elaborated and results published on a platform, accessible via web to authorised users.
ArTeK platform, thanks to the interoperability between platforms, integrates data from Carta del Rischio system (e.g. monuments’ vulnerability and damages). Carta del Rischio is a Geographic Information System developed and managed by ISCR (MiBAC) for monuments’ risks assessment by recording damages, intended as the result of a deterioration process characterised by several interrelated variables.
ArTeK products are also based on data managed by ISPRA (e.g. territorial hazards), linked both to landslides, and to pollutant-related data generated in the frame of the ISCR-ISPRA agreement on the "Evaluation of the effects of air pollution and other factors of anthropic pressure on monuments".
Pilot sites, where demonstration activities were carried out are: Tivoli (both old town centre and the UNESCO site of Villa Adriana, Rome), Civita di Bagnoregio (VT), Matera (MT, UNESCO site), Baia (NA) and Gianola (LT), each one selected on the base of their specific threats and risks that could irreversibly compromise properties’ integrity.
Users involved in the project were public institutions with which collaborations and periodic meetings were done in order to better refine first propositions made.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) provide an agenda to the global community to build and preserve peace, foster education, science, and culture. UNESCO designated sites fall into three categories, including World Heritage Sites, Global Geoparks, and Biosphere Reserves. Currently there are 140 Global Geoparks in 38 countries and 686 Biosphere Reserves in 122 countries. Furthermore, since the adoption of the World Heritage Convention in 1972, the UNESCO compiled a list of 1,073 World Heritage Sites, based on cultural, natural and mixed properties, respectively. Designated sites of UNESCO are distinguished by their outstanding universal value for mankind. However, an increasing number of these sites are labeled as “In Danger”, with the possibility of those values being lost. Currently, 54 UNESCO World Heritages Sites, especially in Africa and the Arab States, are considered endangered, often caused by armed conflicts, natural disasters, and urban sprawl.
Despite the current fleet of available Earth observation satellites, providing valuable services in different sectors like agriculture, forestry, urban monitoring, or heritage management, their data is hardly used for the operational assessment of the endangered sites. This is due to knowledge gaps by the user, limited technical and financial facilities or the lack of ready-to-use data, which result in insufficient exploitation of these opportunities by heritage site managers and other relevant stakeholders. To support stakeholders to process satellite images, derive valuable information and incorporate them into their daily working routines, we developed the e-learning module Space2Place. The module itself is designed as a blended-learning approach. It provides key features such as optimized presentation of the learning units on different end user devices, introduction to various Earth observation applications, e.g. deforestation, forest fire mapping, drought mapping, integration of various optical satellite images, e.g. Sentinel-2, Landsat 8, and RapidEye. The handling is based on interactive approaches, and integration of different media, as well as interim and final quizzes to check learning success. One of the main features is the personalization of the learning modules content depending on the abilities or interests of the user. The platform offers information with different levels of difficulty and adaptable learning paths.
The methods and tools included in the module are linked with an easy-to-use online remote sensing application, called “BLIF”. The connected application comprises a large set of valuable satellite data processing functions, including image enhancement, measurement, analysis and digital image processing tools, which are explained step by step and linked to practical exercises. Based on the improved understanding of inherent benefits of Earth observation technologies, we will enable stakeholders of UNESCO sites to incorporate Earth observation data in their daily work. These datasets and information can be used for customized monitoring of ongoing environmental, economic and social processes according to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and related indicators. Additionally, UNESCO site stakeholders can stimulate the communication about Earth observation satellites, methods, related data and tools as well as actively promote Earth observation in a broader context as useful contribution to preserve the wide range of UNESCO designated sites.

The session Organizers in their abstracts put forward the thesis that “Cultural and natural heritage (CNH) has a major significance for local communities, and symbolizes the legacy and resources that will be passed on to future generations.” From the perspective of wishful thinking in the aspect of building the strategy of activities for the protection of heritage, such an opinion can be considered as legitimate. In this context, a number of questions arise: why do academic archaeologists, local communities or people responsible for protection and management of archaeological/cultural heritage do not take advantage of possibilities of Earth Observation data and techniques often presented in specialist international publications? Where are the reasons for this state of affairs – on the technology side and in the specifics of data or rather on the end users’ side, their expectations, working conditions, openness to new opportunities? Experience resulting from the implementation of two projects fundedby the European Space Agency (ArchEO – Archaeological application of Earth Observation techniques and Earth Observation for South-East Europe – EO4SEE) shows that the problem is complex and related to both aspects. In addition, the question should be asked: if and what are the differences between the anthropogenic and natural regional conditions of Europe and how do they affect the usability of particular satellite techniques in its various regions? In the ArchEO project that focused on the territory of Poland for the identification of archaeological sites and obtaining new information on their characteristics very high resolution optical satellite images were used (e.g.: GeoEye, WorldView-2, IKONOS, Pléiades, RapidEye). This project revealed a very optimistic picture of the potential of satellite imagery application, not only in the aspect of archaeological sites identification but also in reflection on formation processes as well as interpretative issues. On the other hand, one of the use cases implemented in the area of cultural heritage (mainly identification of current and historical cultural landscapes) in frame of the regional EO4SEE project is based on images from the Sentinel-2 constellation and on a wide range of products available within the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service. Also in this case, resulting experience shows a large potential utility, which are adequate in different spatial and informational dimension. Therefore, how can the potential and limitations of technology and data be assessed? How to explain the limited enthusiasm of potential end users in practical use of satellite remote sensing? In the proposed paper we would like to present and discuss various aspects of the aforementioned issues.